AK47: Briefly Noted: The New Yorker
by Michael Hodges (MacAdam/Cage; $24) ... General Mikhail Kalashnikov, who invented the AK-47 at the dawn of the Cold War, ...newyorker.com/arts/reviews/brieflynoted/2008/05/19/
Sunday, August 10, 2008
AK47
what is the full form of AK 47?
The AK-47 (shortened from Russian: Avtomat Kalashnikova and invented at 1947) ... It was one of the first true assault rifles and remains the most widely used and ...in.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070124172552AAmx7UA
The AK-47 (shortened from Russian: Avtomat Kalashnikova and invented at 1947) ... It was one of the first true assault rifles and remains the most widely used and ...in.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070124172552AAmx7UA
Friday, August 8, 2008
Cellular respiration is the process of oxidizing food molecules, like glucose, to carbon dioxide and water. The energy released is trapped in the form of ATP for use by all the energy-consuming activities of the cell.The process occurs in two phases:
glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid
the complete oxidation of pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and waterIn eukaryotes, glycolysis occurs in the cytosol. (Link to a discussion of glycolysis). The remaining processes take place in mitochondria.
MitochondriaMitochondria are membrane-enclosed organelles distributed through the cytosol of most eukaryotic cells. Their number within the cell ranges from a few hundred to, in very active cells, thousands. Their main function is the conversion of the potential energy of food molecules into ATP. Mitochondria have:
an outer membrane that encloses the entire structure
an inner membrane that encloses a fluid-filled matrix
between the two is the intermembrane space
the inner membrane is elaborately folded with shelflike cristae projecting into the matrix.
a small number (some 5–10) circular molecules of DNAThe number of mitochondria in a cell can
increase by their fission (e.g. following mitosis);
decrease by their fusing together.
(Defects in either process can produce serious, even fatal, illness.)
The Outer MembraneThe outer membrane contains many complexes of integral membrane proteins that form channels through which a variety of molecules and ions move in and out of the mitochondrion.
The Inner MembraneThe inner membrane contains 5 complexes of integral membrane proteins:
NADH dehydrogenase (Complex I)
succinate dehydrogenase (Complex II)
cytochrome c reductase (Complex III; also known as the cytochrome b-c1 complex)
cytochrome c oxidase (Complex IV)
ATP synthase (Complex V)
The Matrix
The matrix contains a complex mixture of soluble enzymes that catalyze the respiration of pyruvic acid and other small organic molecules.
Here pyruvic acid is
oxidized by NAD+ producing NADH + H+
decarboxylated producing a molecule of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and
a 2-carbon fragment of acetate bound to coenzyme A forming acetyl-CoA
The Citric Acid Cycle
This 2-carbon fragment is donated to a molecule of oxaloacetic acid.
The resulting molecule of citric acid (which gives its name to the process) undergoes the series of enzymatic steps shown in the diagram.
The final step regenerates a molecule of oxaloacetic acid and the cycle is ready to turn again.Summary:
Each of the 3 carbon atoms present in the pyruvate that entered the mitochondrion leaves as a molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2).
At 4 steps, a pair of electrons (2e-) is removed and transferred to NAD+ reducing it to NADH + H+.
At one step, a pair of electrons is removed from succinic acid and reduces FAD to FADH2.
The electrons of NADH and FADH2 are transferred to the electron transport chain.
The Electron Transport Chain The electron transport chain consists of 3 complexes of integral membrane proteins
the NADH dehydrogenase complex (I)
the cytochrome c reductase complex (III)
the cytochrome c oxidase complex (IV) and two freely-diffusible molecules
ubiquinone
cytochrome c that shuttle electrons from one complex to the next.
The electron transport chain accomplishes:
the stepwise transfer of electrons from NADH (and FADH2) to oxygen molecules to form (with the aid of protons) water molecules (H2O);
(Cytochrome c can only transfer one electron at a time, so cytochrome c oxidase must wait until it has accumulated 4 of them before it can react with oxygen.)
harnessing the energy released by this transfer to the pumping of protons (H+) from the matrix to the intermembrane space.
Approximately 20 protons are pumped into the intermembrane space as the 4 electrons needed to reduce oxygen to water pass through the respiratory chain.
The gradient of protons formed across the inner membrane by this process of active transport forms a miniature battery.
The protons can flow back down this gradient, reentering the matrix, only through another complex of integral proteins in the inner membrane, the ATP synthase complex (as we shall now see).
Chemiosmosis in mitochondria
The energy released as electrons pass down the gradient from NADH to oxygen is harnessed by three enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain (I, III, and IV) to pump protons (H+) against their concentration gradient from the matrix of the mitochondrion into the intermembrane space (an example of active transport).
As their concentration increases there (which is the same as saying that the pH decreases), a strong diffusion gradient is set up. The only exit for these protons is through the ATP synthase complex. As in chloroplasts, the energy released as these protons flow down their gradient is harnessed to the synthesis of ATP. The process is called chemiosmosis and is an example of facilitated diffusion.
One-half of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for their discovery of how ATP synthase works. Link to some of the details.
External Link
Animations of the electron transport chain and the workings of ATP synthase
Please let me know by e-mail if you find a broken link in my pages.)
How many ATPs?
It is tempting to try to view the synthesis of ATP as a simple matter of stoichiometry (the fixed ratios of reactants to products in a chemical reaction). But (with 3 exceptions) it is not.
Most of the ATP is generated by the proton gradient that develops across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The number of protons pumped out as electrons drop from NADH through the respiratory chain to oxygen is theoretically large enough to generate, as they return through ATP synthase, 3 ATPs per electron pair (but only 2 ATPs for each pair donated by FADH2).
With 12 pairs of electrons removed from each glucose molecule,
10 by NAD+ (so 10x3=30); and
2 by FADH2 (so 2x2=4),this could generate 34 ATPs.
Add to this the 4 ATPs that are generated by the 3 exceptions and one arrives at 38.
But
The energy stored in the proton gradient is also used for the active transport of several molecules and ions through the inner mitochondrial membrane into the matrix.
NADH is also used as reducing agent for many cellular reactions.
So the actual yield of ATP as mitochondria respire varies with conditions. It probably seldom exceeds 30.
The three exceptionsA stoichiometric production of ATP does occur at:
one step in the citric acid cycle yielding 2 ATPs for each glucose molecule. This step is the conversion of alpha-ketoglutaric acid to succinic acid.
at two steps in glycolysis yielding 2 ATPs for each glucose molecule.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
The human mitochondrion contains 5–10 identical, circular molecules of DNA. Each consists of 16,569 base pairs carrying the information for 37 genes which encode:
2 different molecules of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
22 different molecules of transfer RNA (tRNA) (at least one for each amino acid)
13 polypeptides
The rRNA and tRNA molecules are used in the machinery that synthesizes the 13 polypeptides.The 13 polypeptides participate in building several protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
7 subunits that make up the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase
3 subunits of cytochrome c oxidase
2 subunits of ATP synthase
cytochrome b
Each of these protein complexes also requires subunits that are encoded by nuclear genes, synthesized in the cytosol, and imported from the cytosol into the mitochondrion. Nuclear genes also encode ~900 other proteins that must be imported into the mitochondrion. [More]
Mutations in mtDNA cause human diseases.A number of human diseases are caused by mutations in genes in our mitochondria:
cytochrome b
12S rRNA
ATP synthase
subunits of NADH dehydrogenase
several tRNA genes
Although many different organs may be affected, disorders of the muscles and brain are the most common. Perhaps this reflects the great demand for energy of both these organs. (Although representing only ~2% of our body weight, the brain consumes ~20% of the energy produced when we are at rest.)
Some of these disorders are inherited in the germline. In every case, the mutant gene is received from the mother because none of the mitochondria in sperm survives in the fertilized egg. Other disorders are somatic; that is, the mutation occurs in the somatic tissues of the individual.
Example: exercise intolerance
A number of humans who suffer from easily-fatigued muscles turn out to have a mutations in their cytochrome b gene. Curiously, only the mitochondria in their muscles have the mutation; the mtDNA of their other tissues is normal. Presumably, very early in their embryonic development, a mutation occurred in a cytochrome b gene in the mitochondrion of a cell destined to produce their muscles.
The severity of mitochondrial diseases varies greatly. The reason for this is probably the extensive mixing of mutant DNA and normal DNA in the mitochondria as they fuse with one another. A mixture of both is called heteroplasmy. The higher the ratio of mutant to normal, the greater the severity of the disease. In fact by chance alone, cells can on occasion end up with all their mitochondria carrying all-mutant genomes — a condition called homoplasmy (a phenomenon resembling genetic drift).
Why do mitochondria have their own genome?
Many of the features of the mitochondrial genetic system resemble those found in bacteria. This has strengthened the theory that mitochondria are the evolutionary descendants of a bacterium that established an endosymbiotic relationship with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells early in the history of life on earth. However, many of the genes needed for mitochondrial function have since moved to the nuclear genome.
The recent sequencing of the complete genome of Rickettsia prowazekii has revealed a number of genes closely related to those found in mitochondria. Perhaps rickettsias are the closest living descendants of the endosymbionts that became the mitochondria of eukaryotes.
glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid
the complete oxidation of pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and waterIn eukaryotes, glycolysis occurs in the cytosol. (Link to a discussion of glycolysis). The remaining processes take place in mitochondria.
MitochondriaMitochondria are membrane-enclosed organelles distributed through the cytosol of most eukaryotic cells. Their number within the cell ranges from a few hundred to, in very active cells, thousands. Their main function is the conversion of the potential energy of food molecules into ATP. Mitochondria have:
an outer membrane that encloses the entire structure
an inner membrane that encloses a fluid-filled matrix
between the two is the intermembrane space
the inner membrane is elaborately folded with shelflike cristae projecting into the matrix.
a small number (some 5–10) circular molecules of DNAThe number of mitochondria in a cell can
increase by their fission (e.g. following mitosis);
decrease by their fusing together.
(Defects in either process can produce serious, even fatal, illness.)
The Outer MembraneThe outer membrane contains many complexes of integral membrane proteins that form channels through which a variety of molecules and ions move in and out of the mitochondrion.
The Inner MembraneThe inner membrane contains 5 complexes of integral membrane proteins:
NADH dehydrogenase (Complex I)
succinate dehydrogenase (Complex II)
cytochrome c reductase (Complex III; also known as the cytochrome b-c1 complex)
cytochrome c oxidase (Complex IV)
ATP synthase (Complex V)
The Matrix
The matrix contains a complex mixture of soluble enzymes that catalyze the respiration of pyruvic acid and other small organic molecules.
Here pyruvic acid is
oxidized by NAD+ producing NADH + H+
decarboxylated producing a molecule of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and
a 2-carbon fragment of acetate bound to coenzyme A forming acetyl-CoA
The Citric Acid Cycle
This 2-carbon fragment is donated to a molecule of oxaloacetic acid.
The resulting molecule of citric acid (which gives its name to the process) undergoes the series of enzymatic steps shown in the diagram.
The final step regenerates a molecule of oxaloacetic acid and the cycle is ready to turn again.Summary:
Each of the 3 carbon atoms present in the pyruvate that entered the mitochondrion leaves as a molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2).
At 4 steps, a pair of electrons (2e-) is removed and transferred to NAD+ reducing it to NADH + H+.
At one step, a pair of electrons is removed from succinic acid and reduces FAD to FADH2.
The electrons of NADH and FADH2 are transferred to the electron transport chain.
The Electron Transport Chain The electron transport chain consists of 3 complexes of integral membrane proteins
the NADH dehydrogenase complex (I)
the cytochrome c reductase complex (III)
the cytochrome c oxidase complex (IV) and two freely-diffusible molecules
ubiquinone
cytochrome c that shuttle electrons from one complex to the next.
The electron transport chain accomplishes:
the stepwise transfer of electrons from NADH (and FADH2) to oxygen molecules to form (with the aid of protons) water molecules (H2O);
(Cytochrome c can only transfer one electron at a time, so cytochrome c oxidase must wait until it has accumulated 4 of them before it can react with oxygen.)
harnessing the energy released by this transfer to the pumping of protons (H+) from the matrix to the intermembrane space.
Approximately 20 protons are pumped into the intermembrane space as the 4 electrons needed to reduce oxygen to water pass through the respiratory chain.
The gradient of protons formed across the inner membrane by this process of active transport forms a miniature battery.
The protons can flow back down this gradient, reentering the matrix, only through another complex of integral proteins in the inner membrane, the ATP synthase complex (as we shall now see).
Chemiosmosis in mitochondria
The energy released as electrons pass down the gradient from NADH to oxygen is harnessed by three enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain (I, III, and IV) to pump protons (H+) against their concentration gradient from the matrix of the mitochondrion into the intermembrane space (an example of active transport).
As their concentration increases there (which is the same as saying that the pH decreases), a strong diffusion gradient is set up. The only exit for these protons is through the ATP synthase complex. As in chloroplasts, the energy released as these protons flow down their gradient is harnessed to the synthesis of ATP. The process is called chemiosmosis and is an example of facilitated diffusion.
One-half of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for their discovery of how ATP synthase works. Link to some of the details.
External Link
Animations of the electron transport chain and the workings of ATP synthase
Please let me know by e-mail if you find a broken link in my pages.)
How many ATPs?
It is tempting to try to view the synthesis of ATP as a simple matter of stoichiometry (the fixed ratios of reactants to products in a chemical reaction). But (with 3 exceptions) it is not.
Most of the ATP is generated by the proton gradient that develops across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The number of protons pumped out as electrons drop from NADH through the respiratory chain to oxygen is theoretically large enough to generate, as they return through ATP synthase, 3 ATPs per electron pair (but only 2 ATPs for each pair donated by FADH2).
With 12 pairs of electrons removed from each glucose molecule,
10 by NAD+ (so 10x3=30); and
2 by FADH2 (so 2x2=4),this could generate 34 ATPs.
Add to this the 4 ATPs that are generated by the 3 exceptions and one arrives at 38.
But
The energy stored in the proton gradient is also used for the active transport of several molecules and ions through the inner mitochondrial membrane into the matrix.
NADH is also used as reducing agent for many cellular reactions.
So the actual yield of ATP as mitochondria respire varies with conditions. It probably seldom exceeds 30.
The three exceptionsA stoichiometric production of ATP does occur at:
one step in the citric acid cycle yielding 2 ATPs for each glucose molecule. This step is the conversion of alpha-ketoglutaric acid to succinic acid.
at two steps in glycolysis yielding 2 ATPs for each glucose molecule.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
The human mitochondrion contains 5–10 identical, circular molecules of DNA. Each consists of 16,569 base pairs carrying the information for 37 genes which encode:
2 different molecules of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
22 different molecules of transfer RNA (tRNA) (at least one for each amino acid)
13 polypeptides
The rRNA and tRNA molecules are used in the machinery that synthesizes the 13 polypeptides.The 13 polypeptides participate in building several protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
7 subunits that make up the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase
3 subunits of cytochrome c oxidase
2 subunits of ATP synthase
cytochrome b
Each of these protein complexes also requires subunits that are encoded by nuclear genes, synthesized in the cytosol, and imported from the cytosol into the mitochondrion. Nuclear genes also encode ~900 other proteins that must be imported into the mitochondrion. [More]
Mutations in mtDNA cause human diseases.A number of human diseases are caused by mutations in genes in our mitochondria:
cytochrome b
12S rRNA
ATP synthase
subunits of NADH dehydrogenase
several tRNA genes
Although many different organs may be affected, disorders of the muscles and brain are the most common. Perhaps this reflects the great demand for energy of both these organs. (Although representing only ~2% of our body weight, the brain consumes ~20% of the energy produced when we are at rest.)
Some of these disorders are inherited in the germline. In every case, the mutant gene is received from the mother because none of the mitochondria in sperm survives in the fertilized egg. Other disorders are somatic; that is, the mutation occurs in the somatic tissues of the individual.
Example: exercise intolerance
A number of humans who suffer from easily-fatigued muscles turn out to have a mutations in their cytochrome b gene. Curiously, only the mitochondria in their muscles have the mutation; the mtDNA of their other tissues is normal. Presumably, very early in their embryonic development, a mutation occurred in a cytochrome b gene in the mitochondrion of a cell destined to produce their muscles.
The severity of mitochondrial diseases varies greatly. The reason for this is probably the extensive mixing of mutant DNA and normal DNA in the mitochondria as they fuse with one another. A mixture of both is called heteroplasmy. The higher the ratio of mutant to normal, the greater the severity of the disease. In fact by chance alone, cells can on occasion end up with all their mitochondria carrying all-mutant genomes — a condition called homoplasmy (a phenomenon resembling genetic drift).
Why do mitochondria have their own genome?
Many of the features of the mitochondrial genetic system resemble those found in bacteria. This has strengthened the theory that mitochondria are the evolutionary descendants of a bacterium that established an endosymbiotic relationship with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells early in the history of life on earth. However, many of the genes needed for mitochondrial function have since moved to the nuclear genome.
The recent sequencing of the complete genome of Rickettsia prowazekii has revealed a number of genes closely related to those found in mitochondria. Perhaps rickettsias are the closest living descendants of the endosymbionts that became the mitochondria of eukaryotes.
History of V.O.C.
One Hundred Tamils of the 20th Century
V.O. Chidambaram Pillai (VOC)வ. உ. சிதம்பரம் பிள்ளை (வ. உ.சி)Kappalottiya Tamilan: கப்பலோட்டிய தமிழன்1872 - 1936
[see also Kappal Oddiya Thamilan: The Overseas Exploits of the Thamils & the Tragedy of Sri Lanka]
"V.O.C. showed the way for organized effort and sacrifice. He finished his major political work by 1908, but died in late 1936, the passion for freedom still raging in his mind till the last moment. He was known as "Chekkiluththa Chemmal" - a great man who pulled the oil press in jail for the sake of his people. He was an erudite scholar in Tamil, a prolific writer, a fiery speaker a trade union leader of unique calibre and a dauntless freedom fighter. His life is a story of resistance, strife, struggle, suffering and sacrifice for the cause to which he was committed.."
[Please also see discussion re 'what do the initials V.O.C. stand for?]
V.O.Chidambarampillai (VOC) was born on 5 September 1872 in Ottapidaram, Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu (the same District which a hundred years earlier given birth to Veerapandiya Kattabomman).
Chidambarampillai was the eldest son of Ulaganathan Pillai and Paramayi Ammai. His early education was in Tuticorin. He passed a pleadership examination in 1894 and this enabled him to practise law at the local sub-magistrate's court. He then went on to practise at the nearby port town of Tuticorin.
The partition of Bengal in 1905, the rise of militancy evidenced by Swadeshi (boycott of foreign goods) movement, saw Chidambarampillai taking a direct interest in the political struggle. These were the years before the arrival of Gandhi on the Indian political landscape.
Chidambarapillai supported Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the militant wing of the Indian National Congress. He participated in the 1907 Surat Congress together with Subramania Bharati. He was one of the earliest to start the 'Dharmasangha Nesavuchalai' for hand-loom industry and the 'Swadeshi Stores' for the sale of India made things to the people. He played a lead role in many institutions, like the "National Godown," "Madras Agro-Industrial Society Ltd.," and "The Desabimana Sangam".
Commerce between Tuticorin and Colombo was the monopoly of the British India Steam Navigation Company (BISN) and its Tuticorin agents, A. & F. Harvey.
Inspired by the Swadeshi movement, V.O.C. mobilised the support of local merchants, and launched the first indigenous Indian shipping enterprise, the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company, thus earning for himself the name - "Kappalottiya Tamilan கப்பலோட்டிய தமிழன்".
The Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company was registered on the 12th of November 1906. He purchased two steamships, S.S. Gallia and S.S. Lawoe for the company and commenced regular services between Tuticorin and Colombo against the opposition of the British traders and the Imperial Government.
His efforts to widen the base of the Swadeshi movement, by mobilising the workers of the Coral Mills (also managed by A. & F. Harvey) brought him into increasing conflict with the British Raj. On 12 March1908, he was arrested on charges of sedition and for two days, Tirunelveli and Tuticorin witnessed unprecedented violence, quelled only by the stationing of a punitive police force. But newspapers had taken note of VOC. Aurobindo Ghosh, acclaimed him in Bande Mataram (March 27, 1908) -
" Well Done, Chidambaram! A true feeling of comradeship is the salt of political life; it binds men together and is the cement of all associated action. When a political leader is prepared to suffer for the sake of his followers, when a man, famous and adored by the public, is ready to remain in jail rather than leave his friends and fellow-workers behind, it is a. sign that political life in India is becoming a reality. Srijut Chidambaram Pillai has shown throughout the Tuticorin affair a loftiness of character, a practical energy united with high moral idealism which show that he is a true Nationalist. His refusal to accept release on bail if his fellow-workers were left behind, is one more count in the reckoning. Nationalism is or ought to be not merely a political creed but a religious aspiration and a moral attitude. Its business is to build up Indian character by educating it to heroic self-sacrifice and magnificent ambitions, to restore the tone of nobility which it has lost and bring back the ideals of the ancient Aryan gentleman. The qualities of courage, frankness, love and justice are the stuff of which a Nationalist should be made. All honour to Chidambaram Pillai for having shown us the first complete example of an Aryan reborn, and all honour to Madras which has produced such a man."
Apart from the Madras press, even the Amrita Bazaar Patrika from Kolkata (Calcutta) carried reports of his prosecution every day. Funds were raised for his defence not only in India but also by the Tamils in South Africa. Bharathy gave evidence in the case which had been instituted against him. V.O.C. was confined in the Central Prison, Coimabtore from 9 July 1908 to 1 December 1910.
The Court imposed a sentence of two life imprisonments (in effect 40 years). The sentence was perhaps a reflection of the fear that the British had for VOC and the need to contain the rebellion and secure that others would not follow in Chidambarampillai's footsteps.
In 1911, Tirunelveli District Collector Ashe was assasinated by Vanchinathan, a youth trained by V.V.S.Aiyar who had at that time had sought refuge in French Pondicherry. The British response was brutal and a witch hunt followed. And the Swadeshi movement petered out with many of its activists languishing in jail.
VOC in prison, was left to fend for himself. His wife, Meenakshi Ammal, followed him from the Tirunelveli sub jail to the Coimbatore and Kannur central jails, where he spent his term and almost single-handedly organised his appeals.
Sivaji Ganesan as VOC in prison in the film Kappalottiya Thamizhan
Chidambarampillai was not treated as a 'political prisoner'. The sentence that was imposed on him was not 'simple imprisonment'. He was treated as a convict sentenced to life imprisonment and required to do hard labour. He was "yoked to the oil press like an animal and made to work it in the cruel hot sun..." writes, historian and Tamil scholar, R. A. Padmanabhan. Sivaji Ganesan's portrayal of VOC in the film Kappalottiya Thamizhan reflected that agony and that pain.
"Among the 300 films which was Sivaji's favourite? Pat came the answer from Sivaji, 'Kappalottiya Thamizhan''. Enacting a doctor, an engineer and others are not very difficult. But to portray a person, a revered freedom fighter, whom people had met, seen and moved with, is a different proposition. So when the late Panthulu asked me to enact the role, I first hesitated. Then I decided to meet the challenge. I got all the material on V. O. Chidambaram Pillai and studied it. 'On seeing the film, I cried, not because my performance was moving but because it hit me with new impact - the sacrifice VOC and others had made for the country. When VOC's son Subramaniam said that he saw his father come alive on the screen, I considered it the highest award.'' Sivaji Ganesan on his Role in Kappalottiya Tamilan
Subramania Bharati was moved to write his வ.உ.சி.க்கு வாழ்த்து.
வேளாளன் சிறைபுகுந்தான் தமிழகத்தார் மன்னனென மீண்டான் என்றே கேளாத கதைவிரைவிற் கேட்பாய் நீ வருந்தலைஎன் கேண்மைக்கோவே! தாளாண்மை சிறினுகொலோ யாம்புரிவேம் நீஇறைக்குத் தவங்கள் ஆற்றி, வேளாண்மை நின் துணைவர் பெறுகெனவே வாழ்த்துதிநீ வாழ்தி! வாழ்தி!
The Prison Cell that V.O.C. occupied in Central Prison Coimbatore"yoked to the oil press like an animal.."
In prison VOC continued a clandestine correspondence, maintaining a stream of petitions going into legal niceties. When he stepped out of prison in late December 1912, after a high court appeal had reduced his prison sentence, the huge crowds present on his arrest were conspicuously absent. His feelings may have been similar to those of Aurobindo in 1909 - feelings which Aurobindo expressed in in the famous Uttarpara speech, soon after his own release from prison:
"It is I, this time who have spent one year in seclusion, and now that I come out I find all changed. One who always sat by my side (Tilak) and was associated in my work is a prisoner in Burma; another is in the north rotting in detention... I looked around for those to whom I had been accustomed to look for counsel and inspiration. I did not find them. There was more than that. When I went to jail the whole country was alive with the cry of Bande Mataram... when I came out of jail I listened for that cry, but there was instead a silence. a hush had fallen on the country and men seemed bewildered... No man seemed to know which way to move, and from all sides came the question, 'What shall we do next? What is there that we can do?' I too did not know which way to move, I too did not know what was next to be done."
VOC was not permitted to remain in his native Tirunelveli district and he moved to Chennai with his wife and two young sons. Having been convicted for sedition, he had lost his pleadership status and he was unable to earn his livelihood by practising the law. The Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company had collapsed. It was liquidated in 1911. He and his family had lost all their wealth and property in his legal defence.
After his release in 1912 he completed his autobiography which he had started writing in prison. It was in Tamil in a verse form. He wrote a commentary on Thirukural and edited the Tamil work of grammar, Tolkappiam. He authored a few novels in Tamil. His translation of some of James Allen's books earned him an indisputable reputation of being an erudite Tamil scholar. His Tamil works like "Meyyaram" and "Meyyarivu" reflect a creative mind, restless for uninhibited expression. V.O.C. attended the Calcutta Congress in 1920.V.O.C. showed the way for organized effort and sacrifice. Today when anybody utters the name of VOC, immediately comes to mind is his achievement as the first Indian to launch a ship service.
"The moment anybody utters the name of VOC, immediately comes to mind is his achievement as the first Indian to launch a ship service between Tuticorin and Colombo through Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company in the interest of the Nation's economy, and that too, against the British Rule. His main aim was to serve the country for attaining Independence from the British and he had all the leadership qualities in him that require achieving things in macro level. He gained the patronage from leading merchants and industrialists in Tirunelveli for establishing a Swadeshi Merchant Shipping Organization, which was unveiled on 16th October 1906. From then on, the company developed from strength to strength and laid its name strongly in the minds of everyone in Indian and foreign countries as well." Chennai School of Ship Management
"The nation will always remember V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, whose 130th birth anniversary was on 5 September 2001, principally for the pioneering role he played in building India's swadeshi shipping industry." VOC - the Doyen of Swadeshi Shipping - S.Dorairaj, 2001
On the 5th September, 1972, on the occasion of VOC's birth centenary the Indian Posts & Telegraphs department issued a special postage stamp. The citation read
"...His courage and determination to run the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company against the stern opposition of the British traders and the Imperial Governmentwon the proud acclaim of one and all..."
VOC finished his major political work by 1908, but died in late 1936, the passion for freedom still raging in his mind till the last moment. He was known as "Chekkiluththa Chemmal" - a great man who pulled the oil press in jail for the sake of his people. He was an erudite scholar in Tamil, a prolific writer, a fiery speaker a trade union leader of unique calibre and a dauntless freedom fighter. His life is a story of resistance, strife, struggle, suffering and sacrifice for the cause to which he was committed. In accordance with his wishes, VOC was taken to the Congress Office at Tuticorin, where he died on the 18th November, 1936.
V.O. Chidambaram Pillai (VOC)வ. உ. சிதம்பரம் பிள்ளை (வ. உ.சி)Kappalottiya Tamilan: கப்பலோட்டிய தமிழன்1872 - 1936
[see also Kappal Oddiya Thamilan: The Overseas Exploits of the Thamils & the Tragedy of Sri Lanka]
"V.O.C. showed the way for organized effort and sacrifice. He finished his major political work by 1908, but died in late 1936, the passion for freedom still raging in his mind till the last moment. He was known as "Chekkiluththa Chemmal" - a great man who pulled the oil press in jail for the sake of his people. He was an erudite scholar in Tamil, a prolific writer, a fiery speaker a trade union leader of unique calibre and a dauntless freedom fighter. His life is a story of resistance, strife, struggle, suffering and sacrifice for the cause to which he was committed.."
[Please also see discussion re 'what do the initials V.O.C. stand for?]
V.O.Chidambarampillai (VOC) was born on 5 September 1872 in Ottapidaram, Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu (the same District which a hundred years earlier given birth to Veerapandiya Kattabomman).
Chidambarampillai was the eldest son of Ulaganathan Pillai and Paramayi Ammai. His early education was in Tuticorin. He passed a pleadership examination in 1894 and this enabled him to practise law at the local sub-magistrate's court. He then went on to practise at the nearby port town of Tuticorin.
The partition of Bengal in 1905, the rise of militancy evidenced by Swadeshi (boycott of foreign goods) movement, saw Chidambarampillai taking a direct interest in the political struggle. These were the years before the arrival of Gandhi on the Indian political landscape.
Chidambarapillai supported Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the militant wing of the Indian National Congress. He participated in the 1907 Surat Congress together with Subramania Bharati. He was one of the earliest to start the 'Dharmasangha Nesavuchalai' for hand-loom industry and the 'Swadeshi Stores' for the sale of India made things to the people. He played a lead role in many institutions, like the "National Godown," "Madras Agro-Industrial Society Ltd.," and "The Desabimana Sangam".
Commerce between Tuticorin and Colombo was the monopoly of the British India Steam Navigation Company (BISN) and its Tuticorin agents, A. & F. Harvey.
Inspired by the Swadeshi movement, V.O.C. mobilised the support of local merchants, and launched the first indigenous Indian shipping enterprise, the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company, thus earning for himself the name - "Kappalottiya Tamilan கப்பலோட்டிய தமிழன்".
The Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company was registered on the 12th of November 1906. He purchased two steamships, S.S. Gallia and S.S. Lawoe for the company and commenced regular services between Tuticorin and Colombo against the opposition of the British traders and the Imperial Government.
His efforts to widen the base of the Swadeshi movement, by mobilising the workers of the Coral Mills (also managed by A. & F. Harvey) brought him into increasing conflict with the British Raj. On 12 March1908, he was arrested on charges of sedition and for two days, Tirunelveli and Tuticorin witnessed unprecedented violence, quelled only by the stationing of a punitive police force. But newspapers had taken note of VOC. Aurobindo Ghosh, acclaimed him in Bande Mataram (March 27, 1908) -
" Well Done, Chidambaram! A true feeling of comradeship is the salt of political life; it binds men together and is the cement of all associated action. When a political leader is prepared to suffer for the sake of his followers, when a man, famous and adored by the public, is ready to remain in jail rather than leave his friends and fellow-workers behind, it is a. sign that political life in India is becoming a reality. Srijut Chidambaram Pillai has shown throughout the Tuticorin affair a loftiness of character, a practical energy united with high moral idealism which show that he is a true Nationalist. His refusal to accept release on bail if his fellow-workers were left behind, is one more count in the reckoning. Nationalism is or ought to be not merely a political creed but a religious aspiration and a moral attitude. Its business is to build up Indian character by educating it to heroic self-sacrifice and magnificent ambitions, to restore the tone of nobility which it has lost and bring back the ideals of the ancient Aryan gentleman. The qualities of courage, frankness, love and justice are the stuff of which a Nationalist should be made. All honour to Chidambaram Pillai for having shown us the first complete example of an Aryan reborn, and all honour to Madras which has produced such a man."
Apart from the Madras press, even the Amrita Bazaar Patrika from Kolkata (Calcutta) carried reports of his prosecution every day. Funds were raised for his defence not only in India but also by the Tamils in South Africa. Bharathy gave evidence in the case which had been instituted against him. V.O.C. was confined in the Central Prison, Coimabtore from 9 July 1908 to 1 December 1910.
The Court imposed a sentence of two life imprisonments (in effect 40 years). The sentence was perhaps a reflection of the fear that the British had for VOC and the need to contain the rebellion and secure that others would not follow in Chidambarampillai's footsteps.
In 1911, Tirunelveli District Collector Ashe was assasinated by Vanchinathan, a youth trained by V.V.S.Aiyar who had at that time had sought refuge in French Pondicherry. The British response was brutal and a witch hunt followed. And the Swadeshi movement petered out with many of its activists languishing in jail.
VOC in prison, was left to fend for himself. His wife, Meenakshi Ammal, followed him from the Tirunelveli sub jail to the Coimbatore and Kannur central jails, where he spent his term and almost single-handedly organised his appeals.
Sivaji Ganesan as VOC in prison in the film Kappalottiya Thamizhan
Chidambarampillai was not treated as a 'political prisoner'. The sentence that was imposed on him was not 'simple imprisonment'. He was treated as a convict sentenced to life imprisonment and required to do hard labour. He was "yoked to the oil press like an animal and made to work it in the cruel hot sun..." writes, historian and Tamil scholar, R. A. Padmanabhan. Sivaji Ganesan's portrayal of VOC in the film Kappalottiya Thamizhan reflected that agony and that pain.
"Among the 300 films which was Sivaji's favourite? Pat came the answer from Sivaji, 'Kappalottiya Thamizhan''. Enacting a doctor, an engineer and others are not very difficult. But to portray a person, a revered freedom fighter, whom people had met, seen and moved with, is a different proposition. So when the late Panthulu asked me to enact the role, I first hesitated. Then I decided to meet the challenge. I got all the material on V. O. Chidambaram Pillai and studied it. 'On seeing the film, I cried, not because my performance was moving but because it hit me with new impact - the sacrifice VOC and others had made for the country. When VOC's son Subramaniam said that he saw his father come alive on the screen, I considered it the highest award.'' Sivaji Ganesan on his Role in Kappalottiya Tamilan
Subramania Bharati was moved to write his வ.உ.சி.க்கு வாழ்த்து.
வேளாளன் சிறைபுகுந்தான் தமிழகத்தார் மன்னனென மீண்டான் என்றே கேளாத கதைவிரைவிற் கேட்பாய் நீ வருந்தலைஎன் கேண்மைக்கோவே! தாளாண்மை சிறினுகொலோ யாம்புரிவேம் நீஇறைக்குத் தவங்கள் ஆற்றி, வேளாண்மை நின் துணைவர் பெறுகெனவே வாழ்த்துதிநீ வாழ்தி! வாழ்தி!
The Prison Cell that V.O.C. occupied in Central Prison Coimbatore"yoked to the oil press like an animal.."
In prison VOC continued a clandestine correspondence, maintaining a stream of petitions going into legal niceties. When he stepped out of prison in late December 1912, after a high court appeal had reduced his prison sentence, the huge crowds present on his arrest were conspicuously absent. His feelings may have been similar to those of Aurobindo in 1909 - feelings which Aurobindo expressed in in the famous Uttarpara speech, soon after his own release from prison:
"It is I, this time who have spent one year in seclusion, and now that I come out I find all changed. One who always sat by my side (Tilak) and was associated in my work is a prisoner in Burma; another is in the north rotting in detention... I looked around for those to whom I had been accustomed to look for counsel and inspiration. I did not find them. There was more than that. When I went to jail the whole country was alive with the cry of Bande Mataram... when I came out of jail I listened for that cry, but there was instead a silence. a hush had fallen on the country and men seemed bewildered... No man seemed to know which way to move, and from all sides came the question, 'What shall we do next? What is there that we can do?' I too did not know which way to move, I too did not know what was next to be done."
VOC was not permitted to remain in his native Tirunelveli district and he moved to Chennai with his wife and two young sons. Having been convicted for sedition, he had lost his pleadership status and he was unable to earn his livelihood by practising the law. The Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company had collapsed. It was liquidated in 1911. He and his family had lost all their wealth and property in his legal defence.
After his release in 1912 he completed his autobiography which he had started writing in prison. It was in Tamil in a verse form. He wrote a commentary on Thirukural and edited the Tamil work of grammar, Tolkappiam. He authored a few novels in Tamil. His translation of some of James Allen's books earned him an indisputable reputation of being an erudite Tamil scholar. His Tamil works like "Meyyaram" and "Meyyarivu" reflect a creative mind, restless for uninhibited expression. V.O.C. attended the Calcutta Congress in 1920.V.O.C. showed the way for organized effort and sacrifice. Today when anybody utters the name of VOC, immediately comes to mind is his achievement as the first Indian to launch a ship service.
"The moment anybody utters the name of VOC, immediately comes to mind is his achievement as the first Indian to launch a ship service between Tuticorin and Colombo through Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company in the interest of the Nation's economy, and that too, against the British Rule. His main aim was to serve the country for attaining Independence from the British and he had all the leadership qualities in him that require achieving things in macro level. He gained the patronage from leading merchants and industrialists in Tirunelveli for establishing a Swadeshi Merchant Shipping Organization, which was unveiled on 16th October 1906. From then on, the company developed from strength to strength and laid its name strongly in the minds of everyone in Indian and foreign countries as well." Chennai School of Ship Management
"The nation will always remember V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, whose 130th birth anniversary was on 5 September 2001, principally for the pioneering role he played in building India's swadeshi shipping industry." VOC - the Doyen of Swadeshi Shipping - S.Dorairaj, 2001
On the 5th September, 1972, on the occasion of VOC's birth centenary the Indian Posts & Telegraphs department issued a special postage stamp. The citation read
"...His courage and determination to run the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company against the stern opposition of the British traders and the Imperial Governmentwon the proud acclaim of one and all..."
VOC finished his major political work by 1908, but died in late 1936, the passion for freedom still raging in his mind till the last moment. He was known as "Chekkiluththa Chemmal" - a great man who pulled the oil press in jail for the sake of his people. He was an erudite scholar in Tamil, a prolific writer, a fiery speaker a trade union leader of unique calibre and a dauntless freedom fighter. His life is a story of resistance, strife, struggle, suffering and sacrifice for the cause to which he was committed. In accordance with his wishes, VOC was taken to the Congress Office at Tuticorin, where he died on the 18th November, 1936.
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